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384 lines
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<strong>Pathological Science & General Electric:Threatening the paradigm</strong>
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Everything in biology depends on the internal order of cells, and on the interactions of each cell with its
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surroundings. All of these orderly interactions involve contacts between biological molecules and water. The
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forces regulating interactions on that scale must be understood before life can be understood, but the
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nature of the forces at these interfaces has been controversial for 100 years. In 1953, physicist Irving
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Langmuir gave a talk at the General Electric laboratory about what he called "pathological science." That
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talk is still resonating in the scientific culture, and it is used to reinforce attitudes similar to those
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held by Langmuir, i.e., the dominant scientific paradigm of the 20th century, and to justify certain
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institutions that regulate innovation. For Langmuir, there was a clearly defined "scientific method," and he
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said some people were led away from the proper method by wishful thinking to interpret ambiguous results as
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confirmations of their hypothesis. He listed 6 symptoms of pathological science: 1) An effect produced by a
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barely detectable cause, and 2) the effect is barely detectable, or many measurements are needed because of
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the very low statistical significance of the results, 3) claims of great accuracy, 4) they involve fantastic
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theories contrary to experience, 5) criticisms are met by <em>ad hoc</em> excuses, and 6) the ratio of
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supporters to critics approaches 50%, then fades toward zero. He failed to mention these features in any
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research that supported his view of things, and called an idea pathological when people continued to work on
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it despite disapproval by the recognized experts. He didn't mention the Nobel prizes that were given for the
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worm theory of cancer or for treating psychological problems with lobotomies, and he didn't mention that
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there were organized campaigns against the publication of disapproved ideas.The dominant view in biology,
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which is analogous to Langmuir's view in physics, is that all decisive cellular processes involve the direct
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mechanical contact of one molecule with another, the activation of a lock (an enzyme or receptor) by a key
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that has the right shape, or the adhesion of a molecule to another substance according to its chemical
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composition. An alternative view, now clearly supported by the evidence, is that there are forces that
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aren't merely between molecular surfaces, but rather that the local conditions at the surfaces of proteins
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and other molecules, and the properties of the solvent water, are modified by the surrounding conditions. It
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is this alternative view that is now making progress in understanding disease and health, regeneration and
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degeneration. But to judge the new work, it's important to know the nature of the opposition.Thomas Edison,
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who was adept at publicizing himself as the inventor of ideas he had bought or stolen, founded General
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Electric. Attempting to eliminate Nikola Tesla's system of alternating current, since Edison was invested in
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direct current systems, Edison's GE tried to convince the public that direct current was safer, by using
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alternating current to electrocute an elephant, and by promoting its use in the electric chair. GE
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eventually gave up the direct current technology for electrifying cities, and they refined the electric
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light bulb and were fairly successful in controlling, practically monopolizing, that market, and in
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shortening the life of incandescent bulbs. Carbon filament bulbs made around 1900 often lasted decades; I
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had one that kept working until it was broken during a move in 1960. Light bulbs made in England 65 years
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ago, and in the Soviet Union, and bulbs currently made in China, had a life expectancy five times as long as
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the bulbs made in the US since GE learned how to carefully control the rate at which the tungsten filament
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deteriorates. Irving Langmuir was their leading light bulb scientist. In his 1932 Nobel lecture, he
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tediously argued that molecules of gas can form only one layer on a surface such as a filament. About 17
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years earlier, Michael Polanyi had demonstrated that molecules can be adsorbed in multilayers, but his
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evidence was dismissed because, according to the understanding of industrial experts such as Langmuir, and
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the leading scientific authorities, Einstein, Nernst, and Haber, it was impossible. They were committed to
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an explanatory system that didn't allow events such as those Polanyi described.Although Polanyi knew that
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his adsorption isotherm was more realistic than Langmuir's (he had demonstrated many cases that Langmuir's
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didn't describe correctly), and also easier to understand, he taught Langmuir's isotherm to his students,
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because he knew that they would be required to know it to pass their examinations. He knew he had risked his
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career by his earlier exposition of his ideas, and he was unwilling to endanger his students' careers by
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involving them in the controversy.From 1920 to 1926, before the advent in 1927 of "quantum physics" (with
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its still-argued features of delocalized electrons, molecular orbitals, resonance, non-locality,
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incommensurability, indeterminism), Polanyi had turned his attention from the physics of adsorption to
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chemical structure, and his group was the first to show that cellulose was made up of long molecules,
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polymers, rather than of just associated clusters. That idea didn't catch on, so he turned to the behavior
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of crystals and metals. He found that crystals were much weaker than they should be, according to the
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strength of the bonds between their atoms, and showed that this was because of defects, and that during
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repeated stresses, they became weaker, as energy migrated through relatively long distances in the
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substance, to concentrate the defects. The idea of lattice defects was acceptable at that time, but
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long-range mobility of bond energy was no more acceptable then than it had been when J.C. Bose described
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metal fatigue, decades earlier. Polanyi also showed that the strength and rigidity of a crystal were altered
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when the crystal was immersed in water. Again, such an influence of a surface on the over-all physical
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properties of a solid substance had no noticeable effect on the scientific culture, although his results
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were published in the major journals. To adjust one's interpretive system at that time to rationalize
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Polanyi's results would have required discarding the basic assumptions that were behind Einstein's
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explanation of the photoelectric effect, and maybe even his theory of Brownian motion. However, by 2011,
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fewer people have invested their personal development in those ideas of short-range electrical binding
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forces that prevailed early in the 20th century, and now, for example, the evidence of "delocalized holes in
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DNA" can be discussed more openly. Eventually, science textbooks may be rewritten to show a steady
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progression of understanding from Bose, though Polanyi, Perutz, Szent-Gyorgyi, Ling, and Damadian (inventor
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of the MRI, holder of the patents infringed by GE, non-winner of the Nobel prize). In 1933 J.D. Bernal had
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proposed a structural model of water that contained a considerable amount of order (Bernal and Fowler, 1933)
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but by the 1950s the idea of spontaneous ordering in water was out of style, and he worked out a more random
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structure. Max Perutz, continuing the study of hemoglobin he had begun with Bernal, became concerned with
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long range forces acting through water: "The nature of the forces which keep particles parallel and
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equidistant across such great thicknesses of water is not yet clear." Normal wet crystals of methemoglobin
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contain regular layers of water 15 Angstroms thick. He suggested that a laminated structure of the water
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could plausibly explain his measurements. Comparing the protein crystal to montmorillonite particles, which
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incorporate several layers of water, each 3 Angstroms thick, each layer of water in the protein crystal
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would be 4 Angstroms thick, since swelling proceeds in discrete steps of that thickness. 52.4% of the volume
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of Perutz's normal, stable, wet protein crystals consisted of liquid. Part of the water is a fixed
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monolayer, but the rest is apparently in the form of mobile, interactive, multilayers. By 1952, Perutz had
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decided that long range forces weren't involved in hemoglobin crystallization, but he didn't comment on the
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long range ordering of clays, tobacco mosaic viruses, and other particles and gels. In 2005, an interlaminar
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distance of 17.9 Angstroms, or six layers of water, still seems to be stable in hydrated montmorillonite
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(Odriozola & Aguilar, 2005). Clay continues to be studied in relation to nuclear waste disposal, so the
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effects of surfaces on water's properties haven't been entirely excluded from science. The interfacial water
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in clay has special catalytic properties that make it interesting to many researchers (Anderson,
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1970)Bernal's and Perutz' conformity in the 1950s rejection of long range forces and an ordered structure of
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water represented the dominant ideas in physics and physical chemistry, but many people (with very little
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financial or institutional support) were continuing to study the structure of water, both in the bulk phase
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and near surfaces, as in cells. Philippa Wiggins, Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, Carlton Hazlewood, Freeman Cope, and
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Ray Damadian were among the most active proponents of the importance of structured water in living cells.
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Walter Drost-Hansen showed that water near surfaces (vicinal water) is several percent less dense, and has a
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greater heat capacity, than bulk water, and that bulk water undergoes transitions at certain temperatures
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that alter its effects on enzyme reactions.The question regarding the nature of the forces at surfaces or
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interfaces affects how we think about everything, from life to nuclear energy. The political and economic
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implications of "non-local energy" (which is most obvious at surfaces) have at times led to organized
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campaigns to discourage research in those areas. When Alexandre Rothen found (beginning in 1946) that
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enzymes and antibodies had non-local effects, several prestigious publications claimed to show how he must
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have been mistaken<strong>: </strong>The<strong> </strong>films<strong> </strong>he used must have been
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porous, despite his demonstrations of their continuity. The methods he developed at Rockefeller Institute
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quickly became standard for accurately measuring very thin films. In the early 1970s, a GE employee, Ivar
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Giaever, visited Rothen's lab to learn his methods. Shortly after his visit, he demonstrated his "new
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method" to the press. I saw an article about it in Science News, and wrote them a short letter, pointing out
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that the method had been developed and used by Rothen much earlier<strong>;</strong> they printed my note,
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which could be seen as a criticism of the author of the news article. About a week later, I got a letter
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from Rothen, thanking me for writing to the magazine; he said they had refused to publish his own letter
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explaining the situation, including his interactions with Giaever during the visit. I assume that the
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magazine felt some kind of pressure to protect Giaever and GE from an authoritative accusation of scientific
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dishonesty.In 1968 when I began studying biology at the University of Oregon, the professor of microscopy,
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Andrew Bajer, posted a display of dozens of micrographs, with explanatory captions, along the halls near the
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entrance of one of the science buildings. The one that interested me most showed orderly rows of regularly
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formed objects on a smooth surface. The caption described it as clusters of sodium atoms, deposited from
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vapor, on a film of a polymer (formvar, I think), under which was a quartz crystal. The caption noted that
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the sodium atoms had condensed in a pattern representing the crystal structure of the underlying quartz.
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Although Rothen's work involved proteins deposited from solution, rather than sodium atoms deposited from
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vapor, Bajer's image illustrated visually the projection of the forces of crystal structure through an
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amorphous film. This seemed to be a graphic representation of Polanyi's adsorption potential, a force acting
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on atoms in the space near a surface, as opposed to Langmuir's local atomic force that didn't reach beyond
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the first layer of atoms. The long range order in this case arranged atoms geometrically, while Rothen's
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preparations showed a "projected" specificity, but of a more complex sort. Just a few months later, someone
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who knew of Stephen Carter's demonstration that fibroblasts will migrate on a glass slide coated with a gold
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film, toward areas of greater thickness of the metal, did a similar experiment, but with a formvar film
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between the gold and the cells. The cells still migrated up the gradient, toward the area of thicker gold
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under the film. The reaction to that publication was the same as the reaction to Rothen's work 20 years
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before, the formvar films contained holes, and the cells were reaching through the film to touch the metal
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surface, sort of like kids peeking around a blindfold when they aren't supposed to be watching. I didn't
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understand how the holes would explain anything, even if there were holes and if the cells had put out many
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long filopodia to reach through the film, but in fact making a formvar film is a very standardized
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technique. They can be made "holey," or like a very open net, or they can be made solid, just by choosing
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the concentration of the polymer used. The difference is very clear, under an electron microscope, but the
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professors needed an excuse for dismissing something they didn't want to understand. Further work was
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discouraged by their ridicule.In Russia, GE had very little influence on the acceptability of ideas in
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science, and Boris Deryagin continued (from the 1930s until 1990) to study the properties of water near
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surfaces. In 1987 his group demonstrated that cells can clear particles from a space around themselves,
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extending more than a cell's diameter away. This distance is similar to the cell free zone in flowing blood
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adjacent to the walls of arterioles, which is probably the result of multiple interacting forces. At
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present, processes such as cell adhesion of leukocytes and stem cells (and tumor cells) to the blood vessel
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wall and movement through the blood vessel into the tissues (diapedesis) is explained in terms of adhesion
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molecules, disregarding the plausible effects of long range attractive or repulsive forces. Clumping or
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sludging of red blood cells occurs when the organism is failing to adapt to stress, and could be reasonably
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explained by a failure of protective repulsive fields. These fields are developed and maintained by
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metabolism, primarily oxidative energy metabolism, and are modified by endogenous regulatory substances and
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external conditions, including electromagnetic and electrical fields. 100 years ago, Albert Einstein was a
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major influence in popularizing the "only local" dogma of atomic interactions. (His work led directly to
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"quantum physics," but he never accepted its irrational implications.<strong><sup>(1)</sup></strong> I don't
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think he ever considered that the assumptions in his [atomic-quantized] theory of the photoelectric effect
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were the problem.) One charged atom is completely neutralized by its association with an oppositely charged
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atom, and the force is described by the inverse square law, that the force decreases with the square of the
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distance between point charges, meaning that the force is very strong at very small distances. However, a
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physical<strong><em>surface</em></strong>, a plane where one substance ends and another begins, follows
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different rules. Different substances have different electron affinities, creating a phase boundary
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potential, a charged layer at the interface. (Electrical double layers at interfaces are important in
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semiconductors and electrodes, but biologists have carefully avoided discussing them, except in the very
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narrow context of electrodes.) The electrically active surface of a substance, even though it's made of
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atoms and electrons, projects its electrical field in proportion to its area. This principle is as old as
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Coulomb's law, but the habit of thinking of electrical charge on the atomic scale seems to make people
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forget it. It's exactly the sort of space-filling field that Polanyi's adsorption isotherm describes. It's
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also involved in crystal strength and elasticity as studied by Polanyi, in piezoelectricity, and in
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generation of semiconduction in amorphous materials, as used in Stan Ovshinsky's processes.Long range
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structural and electronic interactions produce "antenna" effects, which are sensitive to very weak fields,
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whether they originate inside or outside of the organism. Magnetobiology is often treated as a
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pseudo-science or pathological science, because "real science" considers heating and chemical bond reactions
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to be the only possible effects of low energy fields or radiation. Solco Tromp, beginning in the 1930s,
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showed that cells behave like liquid crystals, and that liquid crystals can respond to very low electrical
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and magnetic fields.If the adsorption potential structures the water in its region of space, this
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interfacial water is now a new <em>phase</em>, with different physical properties, including new catalytic
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properties, such as those recognized by the clay investigators (which increased its ability to dissolve the
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clay minerals).Several versions of Langmuir's Pathological Science talk have been published, some of them
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adding new examples, including "polywater." Langmuir died in 1957, and the first example of polywater was
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observed by N.N. Fedyakin was observed in 1961. When finely drawn quartz or Pyrex glass capillary tubes
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(with inside diameter of up to a tenth of a millimeter) are suspended in a container with the air pressure
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reduced, above a container of distilled water, so that they are exposed to pure water vapor at room
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temperature, after a period of an hour or more (sometimes days or weeks were required) a small drop of
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liquid condenses inside some (a small percentage) of the capillary tubes. Above some of the original drops,
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a second drop sometimes appeared, that would enlarge as the first drop shrank. This separation of water into
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two fractions was itself anomalous, and the upper drop was found to be denser than normal water. Many people
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began studying its properties. Fedyakin found that its thermal expansion was greater, and its vapor pressure
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lower, than ordinary water. Others found that it had a higher refractive index, viscosity, and surface
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tension, as well as greater density, than ordinary water. Birefringence (the splitting of a beam of light
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into two rays when it passes through an ordered material) was observed in the anomalous water, and this
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usually indicates the presence of a polymer (Fedyakin, et al., 1965; Willis et al., 1969; Lippincott, et
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al., 1969) or crystallinity. The water associated with clay is also birefringent (Derjaguin and
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Greene-Kelly, 1964), and its properties are different when the clay absorbs it from the vapor phase or from
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liquid water.Hysteresis is a lag in the behavior of a system, resulting when the internal state of the
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system is altered by an action, so that it responds differently to a repetition of that action; it's the
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memory of a system that exists only when the system has internal structure. For example, a gas has
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relatively little hysteresis. Perfect elasticity is one extreme of an ordered solid, but most solids have
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some hysteresis, in which the deformed material fails to spring back immediately. Hysteresis of adsorption
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can be seen at the edges of a drop of water on a tilted surface, with a steeper contact angle on the newer
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contact at the lower edge, showing a reluctance of the water to wet a new surface, a lower contact angle
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where the drop is pulling away from the upper surface, a reluctance to break the contact. The same is seen
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at the edges of an evaporating-shrinking drop, or a growing drop. Everyone perceives this memory function of
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water.Boris Deryagin studied both the elasticity and the hysteresis of water near surfaces, and both
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approaches showed that it contained internal structure. Many dogmatic professors denied that water could
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show elasticity or "memory," because of their interpretive system/mental rigidity. When Fedyakin got the
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help of Deryagin's lab in analyzing the anomalous material, many different methods of purifying the glass
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and the water and the vessel were tried, and its properties were analyzed in many different ways. When
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Deryagin first described the material at a conference in Europe, there was great interest, and eventually
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hundreds of people began investigating it. A British laboratory was the first to get a sample of Deryagin's
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material in 1966, and their tests confirmed Deryagin's. The US Bureau of Standards, having the best
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analytical instruments in the world (including a microscope spectrometer), studied it carefully. They
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(Lippincott, Stromberg, Grant, & Cessac, 1969) found that its bonds were stronger than those in ordinary
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water, and they compared its absorption spectrum (by computer) with those of 100,000 known substances, and
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found that it corresponded with nothing previously known. It didn't have the absorption band of normal
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water. When it evaporated, it left no visible residue, and it turned into ordinary water when heated. They
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concluded that the physical structure that would best fit its absorption spectrum was a polymerized form of
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water, so they called it "polywater." Later, Lippincott and others (Page, et al., 1970; Petsko, 1970) did
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proton magnetic resonance analyses that showed a difference of polywater from normal water in the hydrogen
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bonding, a "deshielding" of the protons, meaning that the electrons were arranged differently in the
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molecules.In 1969 there were many threats to the dominant paradigm, and many people were demanding a change
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in the government's funding priorities. The public excitement about polywater following the many
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confirmations of its existence was disturbing to the defenders of the paradigm. Philip Abelson, the chief
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editor of Science magazine, used the magazine to further his political beliefs. Denis Rousseau, a young
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researcher at Bell Labs (who now writes about pathological science), published a series of articles in
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Science describing his tests of polywater. He played tennis until his tee-shirt was soaked with sweat, then
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extracted and concentrated the sweat into a small gummy pellet. He reported that the infrared spectrum of
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the sweat concentrate (largely sodium lactate) was very similar to that of polywater. One of the techniques
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he used to identify impurities (electron spectroscopy) requires a high vacuum, so there couldn't be any
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normal water present. The water associated with ionic impurities is driven off at low temperatures compared
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to the temperature needed to decompose the anomalous water.Although Rousseau's "explanation" was ludicrous,
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it was just the thing the professors needed to prevent further challenges to their paradigm. Although
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Deryagin published more evidence of the purity of the anomalous water in 1972, by 1973 the mass media,
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including Science magazine, were saying that polywater didn't exist, and that Deryagin had admitted that he
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was mistaken. But polywater was Lippincott's term, and what Deryagin said was that silica was the only
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impurity that could be identified in the anomalous material. There are many antecedents to anomalous water
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in the literature. In the 1920s, W.A. Patrick of Johns Hopkins and J. L. Shereshefsky at Howard university
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investigated the properties of water in fine capillary tubes and found that the vapor pressure wasn't the
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same as that of normal water. (This is what would have been expected, if Polanyi's adsorption isotherm had
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been accepted.) The density of water in clay has been found to be slightly less than normal. This water
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bound to clay requires a high temperature to eliminate, similar to the decomposition temperature of
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polywater. The catalytic properties of interfacial water in clay are recognized, causing it to solublize
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components of the clay. So it's hard to imagine that there wouldn't be some silica in the material formed in
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quartz or glass capillary tubes.<strong>The only thing pathological about the polywater episode was the
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extreme effort that was made to stigmatize a whole category of research, to restore faith in the old
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doctrine that insisted there are no long range ordering processes anywhere in the universe.</strong> The
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successful campaign against polywater strengthened the mainstream denial of the evidence of ordering in
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interfacial and intracellular water, kept the doctrine of the lipid bilayer cell membrane alive, and up
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until the present has prevented the proper use of MRI scans in medical diagnosis.In 1946, while the
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government was studying the way nuclear fallout was influenced by the weather, a group at GE, led by
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Langmuir, began experimenting with weather control by means of "cloud seeding." Langmuir observed that the
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energy in a cloud system was greater than that in an atomic bomb, and that by seeding clouds in Europe,
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disastrous weather effects could be created in the Soviet Union. The GE group convinced the Pentagon to
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become involved in weather control. (The physicist Ross Gunn was transferred directly from work on the
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atomic bomb to direct the cloud seeding project.) In one of Langmuir's seeding experiments, he claimed that
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he had changed the direction of a hurricane moving toward the U.S. When a young researcher pointed out that
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the weather service had predicted exactly that change of direction, based on the temperatures of ocean
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currents, Langmuir became angry, and told the man that he wasn't going to explain it to him, because he was
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too stupid to understand. Langmuir's attitude toward science was exactly what GE wanted; his career and
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reputation were part of the corporation's public relations and business plan. Science was whatever GE
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thought was good for their business. That science was pathological, sometimes by Langmuir's own defining
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features, most of the time by the effects it has had on society. The Manhattan Project was central to GE's
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business plan, and when the bomb project was completed GE and the Atomic Energy Commission found that the
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same subsidies could be used to develop nuclear generators of electricity. Following Edison's pioneering
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work with x-rays, x-ray imaging machines had become very profitable for GE. It was important to assure the
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public that medical, industrial, and military radiation was well understood, well controlled, safe, and
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essential for the general welfare. In their view, if every woman could have access to GE's x-ray mammograms,
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for example, almost all breast cancers could be cured. The radiation exposure from living near a GE nuclear
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power generator is infinitesimal compared to living in Denver or flying in an airplane. (There is some
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discussion of these issues in my January, 2011 newsletter, "Radiation and growth.") Public relations
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involves everything from "basic research" to television advertising.If nuclear energy is as safe as the
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industry and governments say it is, the reactors should be located in the centers of large cities, because
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transmitting electric power long distances is presently wasting 50% of the power (Hirose Takashi, The
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Nuclear Disaster that could destroy Japan...and the world, 2011). Admiral Rickover, influential advocate of
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nuclear power, said "...every time you produce radiation, [a] horrible force [is unleashed,] and I think
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there the human race is going to wreck itself. [We must] outlaw nuclear reactors" (January, 1982
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congressional testimony) Helen Caldicott says Fukushima is many times worse than Chernobyl. The radioactive
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cesium in German mushrooms and truffles hasn't decreased 25 years after Chernobyl, and the German government
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is spending increasing amounts to compensate hunters for the wild boars (who eat truffles) that must be
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disposed of as radioactive waste.<strong><sup>(2)</sup></strong>General Electric sent its condolences to the
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people of Japan, and said the reactors of that design had functioned well for 40 years; they didn't mention
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that Unit I at Fukushima had been scheduled to be shut down on March 26, 2011, the end of its 40 year life
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expectancy. In late March, as the accident continued, Tepco applied for a permit to build two new reactors
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at the Fukushima site. In the US, the government continues its loan guarantee policy to subsidize new
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reactor construction. After many years of working with his metalized slides, Alexandre Rothen found that
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their activity, the strength of their long-range influence, varied with a 24 hour cycle, and that their
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activity could also be destroyed or restored by putting them in a magnetic field, parallel or perpendicular
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to the surface. Around the same time, a Russian biochemist, Simon Shnoll, noticed that there were cyclic
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changes in well defined enzymic reactions. Like Rothen, Shnoll did experiments that showed that the earth's
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motion (relative to the stars) affected measurements in the laboratory, even measurements of alpha particles
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produced by nuclear fission. Organized matter, whether it's cellular or in the crystalline solid state, is
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susceptible to surrounding conditions.In 1971 or '72 I learned of H.C. Dudley's idea of a "neutrino sea,"
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that he suggested might be equivalent to the "luminiferous ether" that had previously been used to explain
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light and electromagnetism. I wrote to him, asking if he thought neutrinos could be involved in biological
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ordering processes by resonating with matter under some circumstances. He had been developing a theory, in
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which atomic nuclei might interact with a neutrino "ether," in ways that could affect the decay rate of the
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unstable isotopes, and so it didn't seem unreasonable to him that biological structures might also interact
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with neutrinos. In October, 1972, he published a purely theoretical article in which he explained that
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nuclear reactors might under some conditions become dangerously unstable. I had earlier seen a newspaper
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article about an experiment by a physicist, J.L. Anderson, in which radioactive carbon-14 didn't follow the
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normal rules of random decay, when the isotope was incorporated into an oil, which was spread in a monolayer
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on a metal surface. By chance, Anderson's experimental article was published simultaneously with Dudley's
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theoretical article, though neither one knew of the other's work. Nearly all physicists said his results
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weren't possible, because the small forces involved in adsorbing an oil to a metal surface were
|
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infinitesimal compared to the force needed to cause nuclear reactions. Over the next few years, Dudley and
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others did some experiments that appeared to confirm Anderson's results, showing that the rate of nuclear
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reactions can be modified by mild changes in the physical state of the unstable elements.Anderson's and
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Dudley's work didn't get much attention from the public, so there was no need for the defenders of the
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dominant paradigm to attack it. There was no financial support for continuing their research.Behind the
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industries' assurances that "low level" radiation is safe, whether it's ionizing radiation, microwave or
|
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broadcast frequency electromagnetic radiation, is their reductionist approach to physics, chemistry, and
|
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biology. Those doctrines no longer have the prestige that they once did, but their pathological,
|
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authoritarian "science" culture is being sustained by the influence of corporations on mass culture.With the
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institutions of research and education controlled by pharmaceutical, military and industrial interests for
|
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their own benefit, fundamental progress in knowledge is a threat to the system. NOTES1. From Einstein's 1926
|
|
letter to Max Born: "Quantum mechanics is very worthy of regard. But an inner voice tells me that this is
|
|
not yet the right track. The theory yields much, but it hardly brings us closer to the Old One's secrets. I,
|
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in any case, am convinced the He does not play dice." Quoted in P. Busch and G. Jaeger, "Unsharp quantum
|
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reality," 4 May 2010.2. None of the major institutions in the US are providing basic information about
|
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protection from Fukushima's radioactive fallout. Eating foods produced before the arrival of the radioactive
|
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rain, feeding old foods to chickens and milk animals, and keeping your metabolic rate high, are the main
|
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defenses. Eventually, fertilizing crops with mined minerals, and enriching the atmosphere with carbon from
|
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coal will dilute the radioactive isotopes from the nuclear accidents.<h3>REFERENCES</h3>DM Anderson, <strong
|
|
>Role of interfacial water and water in thin films in the origin of life,</strong>
|
|
<a rel="nofollow" href="http://history.nasa.gov/CP-2156/ch1.4.htm" target="_blank"
|
|
>http://history.nasa.gov/CP-2156/ch1.4.htm</a>DM Anderson and AR Tice, 1970, <strong>Low-temperature phases
|
|
of interfacial water in clay-water systems,
|
|
</strong>Crrel Research Reports, Army Dept, US, Res Rpt 290. "The low temperature exotherms do not depend
|
|
critically upon water content, but clearly they are related to clay mineral and exchangeable cation type.
|
|
The evolution of heat in this temperature range probably corresponds to a phase change in the interfacial
|
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water.")J. Physical Cehmistry 76(4), 1976, <strong>"Non-Poisson distributions observed during counting of
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|
certain carbon-14 labeled (sub) monolayers,"</strong> Anderson JL.Biophys. Chem. 113 (2005): 245-253,
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<strong>Structural and kinetic effects of mobile phone microwaves on acetylcholinesterase activity,</strong>
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|
Barteri M, Pala A, Rotella S.J. Chem. Phys. 1, 515), 1933, Bernal JD & Fowler RH.J Cell Biol 1964,
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|
127(1):117-128. <strong>Electric field-directed fibroblast locomotion involves cell surface molecular
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|
reorganization and is calcium independent,</strong> Brown MJ and Loew LM.Nature 1965 208(5016):1183-7,
|
|
<strong>Principles of cell motility: the direction of cell movement and cancer invasion,
|
|
</strong>Carter SB.Nature 1967 213: 256-60, <strong>Haptotaxis and mechanism of cell motility,</strong>
|
|
Carter SB.Popular Science, June 1973, <strong>How you can grow your own polywater,</strong> PA Christian and
|
|
LH Berka<strong>:</strong> "Some experts claim this rare substance doesn't exist. Yet here's how you can
|
|
harvest enough of it for own experiments." Pyrex thermometer tubing from a mail-order scientific supply
|
|
store ....Biophysical Journal 9 (1969),303-319, <strong>Nuclear magnetic resonance evidence using D2O for
|
|
structured water in muscle and brain,
|
|
</strong>Cope FW.Langmuir 3(5): 607-612 (1987), <strong>Structure of water in thin layers,</strong> Deryagin
|
|
BV, Churaev NV.Langmuir 3(5): 601-606 (1987), <strong>Modern state of the investigation of long-range
|
|
surface forces,
|
|
</strong>Deryagin BV.Trans. Faraday Soc. 60 (1964: 449-455, <strong>Birefringence of thin liquid
|
|
films,</strong> Derjaguin BV and Greene-Kelly R.Pure & Appl. Chem. 61(11) (1989): 1955-1958, <strong
|
|
>Influence of surface forces on the formation of structural peculiarities of the boundary layers of liquids
|
|
and boundary phases,
|
|
</strong>Derjaguin BV. "The surface forces acting beyond the range of boundary monolayers, are able to
|
|
change the concentration of dissolved ions and molecules.Trans. Faraday Soc. 60, 449 (1964), <strong
|
|
>Reversible and irreversible modification of the properties of liquids under the influence of a lyophilic
|
|
surface</strong>, Derjaguin BV and Green-Kelly R. "Evidence is given of the reversible character of the
|
|
modification of the properties of liquids under the action of surface forces." (Lyophopic substrate, a few
|
|
molecules thick.) "In other cases, e.g. water-glass, water-quartz, fatty acids-metals, the substrate alters
|
|
the structure of the liquid and the properties depending on it to a depth of many tens or hundreds of
|
|
monolayers." (Lyophilic substrate). (the electroviscous effect, proportional to the square of the
|
|
zeta-potential).Fed Proc Transl Suppl. 1965 24(3):431-3, <strong>Effect of constant magnetic field on motor
|
|
activity of birds,
|
|
</strong>El'darov AL & Kholodov YA.Physics A: Statistical and Theoretical Physics 172 (1-2),
|
|
161-173.<strong> The structure and properties of vicinal water: Lessons from statistical geometry,</strong>
|
|
Etzler FM, Ross RF, Halcomb RA, (3% greater density, 25% greater heat capacity.Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR 165
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|
(1965): 878, Fedyakin N.N.FEBS Lett. 367 (1995): 53-55, <strong>Changes in the state of water, induced by
|
|
radiofrequency electromagnetic fields,</strong> Fesenko EE and Gluvstein A.Ya.D. Green-Kelly, B.V.
|
|
Derjaguin, <strong>Research in Surface Forces vol. 2,</strong> p. 117, Consultants Bureau, NY (1966).
|
|
(Birefringence of water near surfaces, in layers up to 200 A thick. Also birefringence of the boundary
|
|
layers of benzene derivatives.)Nature (submitted 1969) Hazlewood CF, Nichols BL, Chamberlain NF.Science 164
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(1969), p. 1482, Lippincott ER.Med. Hypotheses 66 (2006) 518-526, <strong>Cell hydration as the primary
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|
factor in carcinogenesis: A unifying concept,</strong> McIntyre GI.Med. Hypothese 69 (2007): 1127-1130,
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|
<strong>Increased cell hydration promotes both tumor growth and metastasis: A biochemical mechanism
|
|
concsistent with genetic signatures,</strong> McIntyre, GI.J Chem Phys 123, 174708, 2005,<strong>
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|
Stability of Ca-montmorillonite hydrates: A computer simulation study,
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|
</strong>Odriozola G & JF Aguilar JF.Tranropesactions of the Faraday Society, vol. XLII B, 1946, <strong
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|
>"The composition and swelling properties of haemoglobin crystals,"</strong> Perutz M.Science 171(3967),
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|
170-172, <strong>"Polywater" and sweat: Similarities between the infrared spectra,</strong> D.L.
|
|
Rousseau,Biochim Biophys Acta 1975; 403(1):89-97, <strong>Synchronous reversible alterations in enzymatic
|
|
activity (conformational fluctuations) in actomyosin and creatine kinase preparations,</strong>Shnoll
|
|
SE, Chetverikova EP.Szent-Gyorgyi, A., 1957, <strong>Bioenergetics,</strong> Academic Press, Inc. New
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|
York.Prog. Polym. Sci. 20 (1995): 1121-1163, <strong>High and low-density water in gels,</strong> Wiggins
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|
PM.Nature 222, 159-161, 1969, <strong>"Anomalous" Water</strong>, Willis E, GK Rennia, C Smart BA Pethica.
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